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A four-wheel drive, also called 4×4 ("four by four") or 4WD, is a two-axled vehicle
drivetrain A drivetrain (also frequently spelled as drive train or sometimes drive-train) or transmission system, is the group of components that deliver mechanical power from the prime mover to the driven components. In automotive engineering, the driv ...
capable of providing
torque In physics and mechanics, torque is the rotational analogue of linear force. It is also referred to as the moment of force (also abbreviated to moment). The symbol for torque is typically \boldsymbol\tau, the lowercase Greek letter ''tau''. Wh ...
to all of its wheels simultaneously. It may be full-time or on-demand, and is typically linked via a
transfer case A transfer case is an intermediate gearbox that transfers power from the transmission of a motor vehicle to the driven axles of four-wheel-drive, all-wheel-drive, and other multi-axled on- and off-road machines. A part of the vehicle's drivetr ...
providing an additional output drive shaft and, in many instances, additional gear ranges. A four-wheel drive vehicle with torque supplied to both axles is described as "all-wheel drive" (AWD). However, "four-wheel drive" typically refers to a set of specific components and functions, and intended off-road application, which generally complies with modern use of the terminology.


Definitions

Four-wheel-drive systems were developed in many different markets and used in many different vehicle platforms. There is no universally accepted set of terminology that describes the various architectures and functions. The terms used by various manufacturers often reflect marketing rather than engineering considerations or significant technical differences between systems.
SAE International SAE International is a global professional association and standards organization based in Warrendale, Pennsylvania, United States. Formerly the Society of Automotive Engineers, the organization adopted its current name in 2006 to reflect bot ...
's standard J1952 recommends only the term "all-wheel drive" with additional subclassifications that cover all types of AWD/4WD/4x4 systems found on production vehicles..


4×4

"Four-by-four" or "4×4" is frequently used to refer to a class of vehicles in general. Syntactically, the first figure indicates the total number of axle ends and the second indicates the number of axle ends that are powered. Accordingly, 4×2 means a four-wheel vehicle that transmits engine torque to only two axle ends: the front two in
front-wheel drive Front-wheel drive (FWD) is a form of internal combustion engine, engine and transmission (mechanics), transmission layout used in motor vehicles, in which the engine drives the front wheels only. Most modern front-wheel-drive vehicles feature ...
or the rear two in
rear-wheel drive Rear-wheel drive (RWD) is a form of engine and transmission layout used in motor vehicles, in which the engine drives the rear wheels only. Until the late 20th century, rear-wheel drive was the most common configuration for cars. Most rear-whee ...
. Similarly, a
6×4 A 6×4 or six-by-four is a vehicle with three axles, with a drivetrain delivering power to wheels at the ends of two of them. It is a form of four-wheel drive but not one of all-wheel drive. It is the most common form of drivetrain of semi-trac ...
vehicle has three axles, two of which provide torque to two axle ends each. If this vehicle were a truck with dual rear wheels on two rear axles, so actually having ten wheels, its configuration would still be formulated as 6x4. During World War II, the U.S. military would typically use spaces and a capital 'X' – as "4 X 2" or "6 X 4".


4WD

Four-wheel drive (4WD) refers to vehicles with two axles providing torque to four axle ends. In the North American market, the term generally refers to a system optimized for off-road driving conditions. The term "4WD" is typically designated for vehicles equipped with a
transfer case A transfer case is an intermediate gearbox that transfers power from the transmission of a motor vehicle to the driven axles of four-wheel-drive, all-wheel-drive, and other multi-axled on- and off-road machines. A part of the vehicle's drivetr ...
that switches between 2WD and 4WD operating modes, either manually or automatically.


AWD

All-wheel drive (AWD) was historically synonymous with "four-wheel drive" on four-wheeled vehicles, and
six-wheel drive Six-wheel drive (6WD or 6×6) is an all-wheel drive drivetrain configuration of three axles with at least two wheels on each axle capable of being driven simultaneously by the vehicle's engine. Unlike four-wheel drive drivetrains, the configura ...
on
6×6 Six-wheel drive (6WD or 6×6) is an all-wheel drive drivetrain configuration of three axles with at least two wheels on each axle capable of being driven simultaneously by the vehicle's engine. Unlike four-wheel drive drivetrains, the configura ...
s, and so on, being used in that fashion at least as early as the 1920s. Today in North America, the term is applied to both heavy vehicles and light passenger vehicles. When referring to heavy vehicles, the term is increasingly applied to mean "permanent multiple-wheel drive" on 2×2, 4×4, 6×6, or
8×8 Eight-wheel drive, often notated as 8WD or 8×8, is a drivetrain configuration that allows all eight wheels of an eight-wheeled vehicle to be drive wheels simultaneously. Unlike four-wheel drive drivetrains, the configuration is largely confined ...
drive-train systems that include a differential between the front and rear drive shafts. This is often coupled with some sort of antislip technology, increasingly hydraulics-based, that allows differentials to spin at different speeds, but still be capable of transferring the torque from a wheel with poor traction to one with better. Typical AWD systems work well on all surfaces, but are not intended for more extreme off-road use. When used to describe AWD systems in light passenger vehicles, it refers to a system that applies torque to all four wheels (permanently or on-demand) or is targeted at improving on-road traction and performance (particularly in inclement conditions), rather than for off-road applications. Some all-wheel drive electric vehicles use one motor for each axle, thereby eliminating a mechanical differential between the front and rear axles. An example of this is the dual-motor variant of the
Tesla Model S The Tesla Model S is a battery-electric, four-door full-size car produced by the American automaker Tesla since 2012. The automaker's second vehicle and longest-produced model, the Model S has both received mixed reviews from critics and a ...
, which controls the torque distribution between its two motors electronically.


SAE recommended practices

According to the SAE International standard J1952, AWD is the preferred term for all the systems described above. The standard subdivides AWD systems into three categories. Part-time AWD systems require driver intervention to couple and decouple the secondary axle from the primarily driven axle, and these systems do not have a center differential (or similar device). The definition notes that part-time systems may have a low range. Full-time AWD systems drive both front and rear axles at all times via a center (interaxle) differential. The torque split of that differential may be fixed or variable depending on the type of center differential. This system can be used on any surface at any speed. The definition does not address the inclusion or exclusion of a low-range gear. On-demand AWD systems drive the secondary axle via an active or passive coupling device or "by an independently powered drive system". The standard notes that in some cases, the secondary drive system may also provide the primary vehicle propulsion. An example is a hybrid AWD vehicle where the primary axle is driven by an internal combustion engine and the secondary axle is driven by an electric motor. When the internal combustion engine is shut off, the secondary, electrically driven axle is the only driven axle. On-demand systems function primarily with only one powered axle until torque is required by the second axle. At that point, either a passive or active coupling sends torque to the secondary axle. In addition to the above primary classifications, the J1952 standard notes secondary classifications resulting in a total of eight systems, designated as: * Part-time nonsynchro * Part-time synchro * Full-time fixed torque * Full-time variable-torque passive * Full-time variable-torque active * On-demand synchro variable-torque passive * On-demand synchro variable-torque active * On-demand independently powered variable-torque active


Design


Differentials

Two wheels fixed to the same axle (but on the opposite axle ends) need to turn at different speeds as a vehicle goes around a curve. The reason is that the wheel that is located on the inner side of the curve needs to travel less distance than the opposite wheel for the same duration of time. However, if both wheels are connected to the same axle driveshaft, they always have to spin at the same speed relative to each other. When going around a curve, this either forces one of the wheels to slip, if possible, to balance the apparent distance covered, or creates uncomfortable and mechanically stressful wheel hop. To prevent this, the wheels are allowed to turn at different speeds using a mechanical or hydraulic differential. This allows one
driveshaft A drive shaft, driveshaft, driving shaft, tailshaft (Australian English), propeller shaft (prop shaft), or Cardan shaft (after Girolamo Cardano) is a component for transmitting mechanical power, torque, and rotation, usually used to connect ...
to independently drive two output shafts, axles that go from the differential to the wheel, at different speeds. The differential does this by distributing angular force (in the form of
torque In physics and mechanics, torque is the rotational analogue of linear force. It is also referred to as the moment of force (also abbreviated to moment). The symbol for torque is typically \boldsymbol\tau, the lowercase Greek letter ''tau''. Wh ...
) evenly, while distributing
angular velocity In physics, angular velocity (symbol or \vec, the lowercase Greek letter omega), also known as the angular frequency vector,(UP1) is a pseudovector representation of how the angular position or orientation of an object changes with time, i ...
(turning speed) such that the average for the two output shafts is equal to that of the differential
ring gear An epicyclic gear train (also known as a planetary gearset) is a gear reduction assembly consisting of two gears mounted so that the center of one gear (the "planet") revolves around the center of the other (the "sun"). A carrier connects the ...
. When powered, each axle requires a differential to distribute power between the left and right sides. When power is distributed to all four wheels, a third or 'center' differential can be used to distribute power between the front and rear axles. The described system handles extremely well, as it is able to accommodate various forces of movement and distribute power evenly and smoothly, making slippage unlikely. Once it does slip, however, recovery is difficult. If the left front wheel of a 4WD vehicle slips on an icy patch of road, for instance, the slipping wheel spins faster than the other wheels due to the lower traction at that wheel. Since a differential applies equal torque to each half-shaft, power is reduced at the other wheels, even if they have good traction. This problem can happen in both 2WD and 4WD vehicles, whenever a driven wheel is placed on a surface with little traction or raised off the ground. The simplistic design works acceptably well for 2WD vehicles. It is much less acceptable for 4WD vehicles, because 4WD vehicles have twice as many wheels with which to lose traction, increasing the likelihood that it may happen. 4WD vehicles may also be more likely to drive on surfaces with reduced traction. However, since torque is divided between four wheels rather than two, each wheel receives roughly half the torque of a 2WD vehicle, reducing the potential for wheel slip.


Limiting slippage

Many differentials have no way of limiting the amount of engine power that gets sent to their attached output shafts. As a result, if a tire loses traction on acceleration, either because of a low-traction situation (e.g., driving on gravel or ice) or the engine power overcomes available traction, the tire that is not slipping receives little or no power from the engine. In very low-traction situations, this can prevent the vehicle from moving at all. To overcome this, several designs of differentials can either limit the amount of slip (these are called 'limited-slip' differentials) or temporarily lock the two output shafts together to ensure that engine power reaches all driven wheels equally.
Locking differential A locking differential is a mechanical component, commonly used in vehicles, designed to overcome the chief limitation of a standard open Differential (mechanical device), differential by essentially "locking" both wheels on an axle together as ...
s work by temporarily locking together a differential's output shafts, causing all wheels to turn at the same rate, providing torque in case of slippage. This is generally used for the center differential, which distributes power between the front and the rear axles. While a drivetrain that turns all wheels equally would normally fight the driver and cause handling problems, this is not a concern when wheels are slipping. The two most common factory-installed locking differentials use either a computer-controlled
multiplate clutch Multiplate multiple electrode aggregometry (MEA) is a test of platelet function in whole blood. The test can be used to diagnose platelet disorders, monitor antiplatelet therapy, and is also investigated as a potential predictor of transfusion req ...
or
viscous coupling unit A viscous coupling is a mechanical device which transfers torque and rotation by the medium of a viscosity, viscous fluid. Design Rotary viscous couplings with interleaved, perforated plates and filled with viscous fluids are used in autom ...
to join the shafts, while other differentials are more commonly used on off-road vehicles generally use manually operated locking devices. In the multi-plate clutch, the vehicle's computer senses slippage and locks the shafts, causing a small jolt when it activates, which can disturb the driver or cause additional traction loss. In the viscous coupling differentials, the
shear stress Shear stress (often denoted by , Greek alphabet, Greek: tau) is the component of stress (physics), stress coplanar with a material cross section. It arises from the shear force, the component of force vector parallel to the material cross secti ...
of high shaft speed differences causes a
dilatant A dilatant (, ) (also termed shear thickening) material is one in which viscosity increases with the rate of shear strain. Such a ''shear thickening fluid'', also known by the initialism ''STF'', is an example of a non-Newtonian fluid. This be ...
fluid in the differential to become solid, linking the two shafts. This design suffers from fluid degradation with age and from
exponential Exponential may refer to any of several mathematical topics related to exponentiation, including: * Exponential function, also: **Matrix exponential, the matrix analogue to the above *Exponential decay, decrease at a rate proportional to value * Ex ...
locking behavior. Some designs use gearing to create a small rotational difference that hastens torque transfer. A third approach to limiting slippage is taken by a
Torsen Torsen Torque-Sensing (full name Torsen traction) is a type of limited-slip differential used in automobiles. It was invented by American Vernon Gleasman and manufactured by the Gleason Corporation. Torsen is a portmanteau of Torque-Sensing. '' ...
differential, which allows the output shafts to receive different amounts of torque. This design does not provide for traction when one wheel is spinning freely, where no torque exists, but provides excellent handling in less extreme situations. A typical Torsen II differential can deliver up to twice as much torque to the high-traction side before traction is exceeded at the low-traction side. A fairly recent innovation in automobiles is electronic
traction control A traction control system (TCS), is typically (but not necessarily) a secondary function of the electronic stability control (ESC) on production motor vehicles, designed to prevent loss of traction (i.e., wheelspin) of the driven road wheels. TCS ...
. It typically uses a vehicle's braking system to slow a spinning wheel. This forced slowing emulates the function of a limited-slip differential, and by using the brakes more aggressively to ensure wheels are being driven at the same speed, can also emulate a locking differential. This technique normally requires wheel sensors to detect when a wheel is slipping, and only activates when wheel slip is detected. Therefore, typically no mechanism exists to actively prevent wheel slip (i.e., locking the differential in advance of wheel slip is not possible); rather, the system is designed to expressly permit wheel slip to occur, and then to attempt to send torque to the wheels with the best traction. If preventing all-wheel slip is a requirement, this is a limiting design.


Operating modes

The architecture of an AWD/4WD system can be described by showing its possible operating modes. A single vehicle may have the ability to operate in multiple modes depending on driver selection. The different modes are: *Two-wheel drive mode – In this mode, only one axle (typically the rear axle) is driven. The drive to the other axle is disconnected. The operating torque split ratio is 0:100. *Four-wheel drive mode – Here, depending on the nature of torque transfer to the axles, three submodes (below) can be defined. *Part-time mode – The front and rear axle drives are rigidly coupled in the transfer case. Since the driveline does not permit any speed differentiation between the axles and would cause driveline wind-up, this mode is recommended only for part-time use in off-road or loose-surface conditions where driveline wind-up is unlikely. Up to full torque could go to either axle, depending on the road conditions and the weight over the axles. *Full-time mode – Both axles are driven at all times, but an interaxle differential permits the axles to turn at different speeds as needed. This allows the vehicle to be driven full-time in this mode, regardless of the road surface, without fear of driveline wind-up. With standard bevel-gear differentials, the torque split is 50:50. Planetary differentials can provide asymmetric torque splits as needed. A system that operates permanently in the full-time mode is sometimes called all-the-time 4WD, all-wheel drive, or AWD. If the interaxle differential is locked out, then the mode reverts to a part-time mode. *On-demand mode – In this mode, the transfer case operates primarily in the 2WD mode. Torque is transferred to the secondary axle as needed by modulating the transfer clutch from open to a rigidly coupled state, while avoiding any driveline wind-up. The torque modulation may be achieved by active electronic/hydraulic control systems, or by passive devices, based on wheel slip or wheel torque, as described in the section on traction control systems. In addition to these basic modes, some implementations can combine these modes. The system could have a clutch across the center differential, for example, capable of modulating the front axle torque from a full-time mode with the 30:70 torque split of the center differential to the 0:100 torque split of the 2WD mode.


History


Late 1800s

In 1893, before the establishment of the modern automotive industry, English engineer
Bramah Joseph Diplock Bramah Joseph Diplock (27 April 1857 – 9 August 1918) was an English inventor who invented the pedrail wheel in 1899 and the pedrail chaintrack, a type of caterpillar track, in 1907. Diplock was born in Chelsea, London to Thomas Bramah Dipl ...
patented a four-wheel drive system for a
steam-powered A steam engine is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid. The steam engine uses the force produced by steam pressure to push a piston back and forth inside a cylinder. This pushing force can be tra ...
traction engine A traction engine is a steam engine, steam-powered tractor used to move heavy loads on roads, plough ground or to provide power at a chosen location. The name derives from the Latin ''tractus'', meaning 'drawn', since the prime function of any ...
, including
four-wheel steering Steering is the control of the direction of motion or the components that enable its control. Steering is achieved through various arrangements, among them ailerons for airplanes, rudders for boats, cylic tilting of rotors for helicopters, a ...
and three differentials, which was subsequently built. The development also incorporated Diplock's
Pedrail wheel The pedrail wheel is a type of all-terrain wheel developed in the late 19th and early 20th century by Londoner Bramah Joseph Diplock. It consists of a series of "feet" (''pedes'' in Latin) connected to pivots on a wheel. As the wheel travels, ...
system in what was one of the first four-wheel drive automobiles to display an intentional ability to travel on challenging road surfaces. It stemmed from Diplock's previous idea of developing a ''road-going'' steam engine that would reduce the amount of damage to public roads.
Ferdinand Porsche Ferdinand Porsche (3 September 1875 – 30 January 1951) was a German automotive engineering, automotive engineer and founder of the Porsche, Porsche AG. He is best known for creating the first Petrol engine, gasoline–Electric motor, el ...
(senior) designed and built a four-wheel-driven
electric vehicle An electric vehicle (EV) is a motor vehicle whose propulsion is powered fully or mostly by electricity. EVs encompass a wide range of transportation modes, including road vehicle, road and rail vehicles, electric boats and Submersible, submer ...
while at the ''k.u.k. Hofwagenfabrik Ludwig Lohner & Co.'' in Vienna in 1899, which was presented to the public at the 1900 Paris
World's Fair A world's fair, also known as a universal exhibition, is a large global exhibition designed to showcase the achievements of nations. These exhibitions vary in character and are held in different parts of the world at a specific site for a perio ...
. Trained as an electrical engineer, the young Porsche was hired by a maker of commercial carriages, to design and lead manufacture of the first "horseless carriages" for Lohner. The Lohner-Porsche vehicles were serial hybrids that used electric
hub motor A wheel hub motor, hub motor, or in-wheel motor is a motor that is incorporated into the hub of the wheel. Wheel-hub motors are commonly found on electric bicycles. Electric hub motors were well received in early electric cars, but have not bee ...
s in the driven wheels, powered by batteries, which were in turn charged by a gasoline combustion-engine driven generator – an arrangement that Porsche divised to give Lohner's vehicles the superior reliability of electric cars of the 1890s, but fitting an internal combustion generator was both cheaper and much lighter than the enormously heavy battery-pack that would otherwise have been needed to give commercial buyers the range they wanted, not to mention the useable payload challenges. ''See year 1898''. Porsche's in-wheel motor design meant that Lohner's customers could freely choose either
front Front may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Films * ''The Front'' (1943 film), a 1943 Soviet drama film * '' The Front'', 1976 film Music * The Front (band), an American rock band signed to Columbia Records and active in the 1980s and ...
or
rear-wheel drive Rear-wheel drive (RWD) is a form of engine and transmission layout used in motor vehicles, in which the engine drives the rear wheels only. Until the late 20th century, rear-wheel drive was the most common configuration for cars. Most rear-whee ...
, but in 1898, one customer requested all four wheels to have a motor, because he hoped to get a car that would give him an advantage in European – mostly unpaved – road races in his time. However, despite Porsche's ingenious hybrid drive, which basically only required two extra motors and power cables, to achieve four-wheel drive (or perhaps
All-wheel drive An all-wheel drive vehicle (AWD vehicle) is one with a powertrain capable of providing power to all its wheels, whether full-time or on-demand. Types The most common forms of all-wheel drive are: ;1x1 : All unicycles Reflects one axle with ...
), the car was still clumsily heavy. Due to their unusual status, neither Diplock's on-road steam-engine, despite pioneering the center, front and rear differential drive-train, nor the hybrid ''Lohner–Porsche'' are often given credit as the first four-wheel driven automobiles.


1900s–1920s

The world's first four-wheel drive car directly powered by an internal-combustion engine, and the first with a
front-engine, four-wheel-drive layout In automotive design, an F4, or front-engine, four-wheel drive (4WD) layout places the internal combustion engine at the front of the vehicle and drives all four roadwheels. This car layout, layout is typically chosen for better control on many ...
, was the Dutch ''Spyker 60 H.P.''. Commissioned for the Paris to Madrid race of 1903, it was presented that year by brothers Jacobus and Hendrik-Jan Spijker of
Amsterdam Amsterdam ( , ; ; ) is the capital of the Netherlands, capital and Municipalities of the Netherlands, largest city of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It has a population of 933,680 in June 2024 within the city proper, 1,457,018 in the City Re ...
. The two-seat sports car featured permanent four-wheel drive and was also the first car equipped with a six-cylinder engine, as well as four-wheel braking. Later used as a hill-climb racer, it is now an exhibit in the
Louwman Museum The Louwman Museum is a museum for historic cars, coaches, and motorcycles in The Hague, Netherlands. It has been situated on the Leidsestraatweg near the A44 motorway since 2010. The museum's former names are "Nationaal Automobiel Museum" and " ...
(the former Nationaal Automobiel Museum) in
the Hague The Hague ( ) is the capital city of the South Holland province of the Netherlands. With a population of over half a million, it is the third-largest city in the Netherlands. Situated on the west coast facing the North Sea, The Hague is the c ...
, the Netherlands. Designs for four-wheel drive in America first came from the
Twyford Motor Car Company Introduction Robert E. Twyford had an important role in the History of the automobile#19th century, development of the automobile. He originally started out as a building contractor in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, but later turned to developing au ...
. The
Reynolds-Alberta Museum The Reynolds-Alberta Museum is an agricultural museum, agricultural, industrial, and transportation museum in Wetaskiwin, Alberta, Canada. The museum is situated on an property containing the main museum building, an aviation display hangar, and ...
has a four-wheel-drive vehicle, named "
Michigan Michigan ( ) is a peninsular U.S. state, state in the Great Lakes region, Great Lakes region of the Upper Midwest, Upper Midwestern United States. It shares water and land boundaries with Minnesota to the northwest, Wisconsin to the west, ...
", from 1905 in unrestored storage. The first four-wheel-drive vehicles to go into mass production were built by (what became) the American
Four Wheel Drive The Four Wheel Drive Auto Company, more often known as Four Wheel Drive (FWD), was a pioneering American company that developed and produced all-wheel drive vehicles. It was founded in 1909 in Clintonville, Wisconsin, as the Badger Four-Wheel Dr ...
Auto Company (FWD) of
Wisconsin Wisconsin ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Great Lakes region, Great Lakes region of the Upper Midwest of the United States. It borders Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michig ...
, founded in 1908. (not to be confused with the term "FWD" as an initialism for ''front-wheel-drive'')
Along with the 1- and 2-ton Nash Quad (see below), the 3-ton FWD Model B became a standard military four-wheel-drive truck for the U.S. Army in World War I. Some 16,000 FWD Model B trucks were built for the
British British may refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies. * British national identity, the characteristics of British people and culture ...
and American armies during World War I – about half by FWD and the rest by other licensed manufacturers. Only about 20% of the trucks built were four-wheel drives, but the 4x4s were more often on the front lines. About 11,500 of the
Jeffery Jeffery may refer to: * Jeffery (name), including a list of people with the name * Jeffery (automobile), an early American automobile manufacturer * Thomas B. Jeffery Company * Jeffery Boulevard, a major north–south street on the South Side of Ch ...
/ Nash Quad trucks were built for similar use between 1913 and 1919. The Quad not only came with four-wheel-drive and four-wheel brakes, but also featured four-wheel steering. The Quad was one of the first successful four-wheel drive vehicles ever to be made, and its production continued for 15 years with a total of 41,674 units made by 1928.
Daimler-Benz Mercedes-Benz Group AG (formerly Daimler-Benz, DaimlerChrysler, and Daimler) is a Germany, German Multinational corporation, multinational Automotive industry, automotive company headquartered in Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is o ...
also has a history in four-wheel drive. After the
Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft (abbreviated as DMG, also known as Daimler Motors Corporation) was a German engineering company and later automobile manufacturer, in operation from 1890 until 1926. Founded by Gottlieb Daimler (1834–1900) and Wil ...
had built a four-wheel-driven vehicle called ''Dernburg-Wagen'', also equipped with
four-wheel steering Steering is the control of the direction of motion or the components that enable its control. Steering is achieved through various arrangements, among them ailerons for airplanes, rudders for boats, cylic tilting of rotors for helicopters, a ...
, in 1907, that was used by German colonial civil servant, Bernhard Dernburg, in
Namibia Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country on the west coast of Southern Africa. Its borders include the Atlantic Ocean to the west, Angola and Zambia to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south; in the no ...
; Mercedes and BMW, in 1926, introduced some rather sophisticated four-wheel drives, the G1, the G4, and G4 following. Mercedes and BMW developed this further in 1937.


1930s

The American Marmon-Herrington Company was founded in 1931 to serve a growing market for moderately priced four-wheel-drive vehicles. Marmon-Herrington specialized in converting Ford trucks to four-wheel drive and got off to a successful start by procuring contracts for military and commercial aircraft refueling trucks, 4×4 chassis for towing light weaponry, and an order from the Iraqi Pipeline Company for what were the largest trucks built at the time. The early Marmon-Herringtons proved to be the exception to the rule — 4WD cars and trucks developed in the 1930s were mainly built for governments, with (future) warfare applications in mind. Dodge developed its first four-wheel-drive truck in 1934 — a military ton designated K-39-X-4(USA), of which 796 units were built for the U.S. Army in several configurations.1943 Dodge WC-51 Weapons Carrier, Power & Glory – FourWheeler.com
/ref> Timken supplied front axles and transfer cases, added to militarized a civilian truck. The Timken
transfer case A transfer case is an intermediate gearbox that transfers power from the transmission of a motor vehicle to the driven axles of four-wheel-drive, all-wheel-drive, and other multi-axled on- and off-road machines. A part of the vehicle's drivetr ...
was the first ''part-time'' design, that allowed the driver to engage or disengage four-wheel drive using a lever inside the cab.1946–1948 Dodge Power Wagon – HowStuffWorks
/ref> In spite of the limited 1930s U.S. military budgets, the '34 truck was liked well-enough that a more modern ton truck was developed, and 1,700 RF-40-X-4(USA) trucks were produced in 1938, and 292 TF-40-X-4(USA) in 1939. Starting in 1936, Japanese company Tokyu Kurogane Kogyo built roughly 4,700 four-wheel-drive roadsters, called the
Kurogane Type 95 The Type 95 was a Empire of Japan, Japanese scout car built by , and was used during the Second Sino-Japanese War, war with China and Pacific War, World War II in the East. Between 1936 and 1944 approximately 4,700 were built. It was the only co ...
reconnaissance car, used by the Imperial Japanese Army from 1937 until 1944, during the
Second Sino-Japanese War The Second Sino-Japanese War was fought between the Republic of China (1912–1949), Republic of China and the Empire of Japan between 1937 and 1945, following a period of war localized to Manchuria that started in 1931. It is considered part ...
. Three different bodystyles were manufactured – a two-door roadster, a two-door pickup truck, and a four-door phaeton, all equipped with a transfer case that engaged the front wheels, powered by a 1.3-litre, two-cylinder, air-cooled OHV V-twin engine. The 1937 Mercedes-Benz G5 and BMW 325 4×4 featured full-time four-wheel drive, four-wheel steering, three locking differentials, and fully independent suspension. They were produced because of a government demand for a four-wheel-drive passenger vehicle. The modern Geländewagen such as the
Mercedes-Benz G-Class The Mercedes-Benz G-Class, colloquially known as the G-Wagon or G-Wagen (as an abbreviation of Geländewagen), is a four-wheel drive luxury SUV manufactured by Magna Steyr (formerly Steyr-Daimler-Puch) in Graz, Styria, Austria, and sold by Mercede ...
still feature some of the attributes, with the exception of fully independent suspension, since it can compromise ground clearance. The
Unimog The Unimog (pronunciation in American English: ''YOU-nuh-mog''; British English: ''YOU-knee-mog''; German: , ) is a Daimler Truck line of multi-purpose, highly offroad capable AWD vehicles produced since 1948. Utilizing engine-driven power tak ...
is also a result of Mercedes 4x4 technology. The first Russian-produced four-wheel-drive vehicle, also in part for civilian use, was the
GAZ-61 The GAZ-61 is a four-wheel-drive car from USSR manufacturer GAZ first introduced in 1938 by designer V. A. Gratchev, to replace his too-complex model GAZ-M21. History It was essentially a GAZ-M1 with a higher stance and all-wheel drive (one ...
, developed in the
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
in 1938. "Civilian use" may be a bit of a misnomer, as most, if not all, were used by the Soviet government and military (as command cars), but the GAZ-61-73 version is the first four-wheel-drive vehicle with a normal closed sedan body. Elements of the chassis were used in subsequent military vehicles such as the 1940
GAZ-64 The GAZ-64 was a 4x4 vehicle made by GAZ (Gorkovsky Avtomobilny Zavod, translated as Gorky Automobile Plant, which originally was a cooperation between Ford and the Soviet Union), succeeding the earlier GAZ-61. Its design was led by Vitaliy ...
and the 1943
GAZ-67 The GAZ-67 and the GAZ-67B (from January 1944) were general-purpose four-wheel drive A four-wheel drive, also called 4×4 ("four by four") or 4WD, is a two-axled vehicle drivetrain capable of providing torque to all of its wheels simultane ...
, as well as the postwar
GAZ-69 The GAZ-69 is a Soviet four-wheel drive off-road vehicle produced by GAZ (ГАЗ, or ''Gorkovsky Avtomobilnyi Zavod'', Gorky Automobile Factory) between 1953 and 1956 and then by UAZ between 1956 and 1972, though all of these light truck class ...
, and the properly civilian GAZ-M-72, based on the
rear-wheel drive Rear-wheel drive (RWD) is a form of engine and transmission layout used in motor vehicles, in which the engine drives the rear wheels only. Until the late 20th century, rear-wheel drive was the most common configuration for cars. Most rear-whee ...
GAZ-20 "Victory" and built from 1955 to 1958. Soviet civilian life did not allow the proliferation of civilian products such as the
Jeep Jeep is an American automobile brand, now owned by multi-national corporation Stellantis. Jeep has been part of Chrysler since 1987, when Chrysler acquired the Jeep brand, along with other assets, from its previous owner, American Motors Co ...
in North America, but through the 1960s, the technology of Soviet 4×4 vehicles stayed on par with British, German, and American models, even exceeding it in some aspects, and for military purposes just as actively developed, produced, and used.


World War II – a leap in AWD proliferation

Until "go-anywhere" vehicles were needed for the military on a large scale, four-wheel drive and
all-wheel-drive An all-wheel drive vehicle (AWD vehicle) is one with a powertrain capable of providing power to all its wheels, whether full-time or on-demand. Types The most common forms of all-wheel drive are: ;1x1 : All unicycles Reflects one axle with ...
vehicles had not found their place. The World War II Jeep, originally developed by
American Bantam The American Bantam Car Company was an American automobile manufacturing company incorporated in the state of Pennsylvania. American Bantam is credited with inventing the original World War II ton jeep in 1940.To be distinguished from the U.S. ...
, but mass-produced by
Willys Willys (pronounced , "Willis") was a brand, brand name used by Willys–Overland Motors, an American automobile company, founded by John Willys, John North Willys. It was best known for its design and production of World War II–era Willys MB, ...
and Ford, became the best-known four-wheel-drive vehicle in the world during the war. The American
Dodge WC series The Dodge WC series, nicknamed "Beeps", and at first (from 1940–1942), nicknamed ''jeeps'',) is a prolific range of light Four-wheel drive, 4WD and medium Six-wheel drive, 6WD Military light utility vehicle, military utility trucks, produ ...
and Chevrolet G506 4x4 variants were also produced by the hundreds of thousands, as well as the Canadian Military Pattern trucks, of which 4x4s were by far the most prevalent of their various driveline configurations. All told, North America built about million 4x4 driven vehicles during the war, Availability of certain critical components, such transfer cases and especially
constant-velocity joint A constant-velocity joint (also called a CV joint and homokinetic joint) is a mechanical coupling which allows the shafts to rotate freely (without an appreciable increase in friction or Backlash (engineering), backlash) and compensates for the a ...
s affected development. Though not used much on commercial vehicles,
Front-wheel drive Front-wheel drive (FWD) is a form of internal combustion engine, engine and transmission (mechanics), transmission layout used in motor vehicles, in which the engine drives the front wheels only. Most modern front-wheel-drive vehicles feature ...
vehicles had not yet become common at that time
all-wheel drive vehicles all needed these; and they would use two or three times the number of driven axles, meaning more gears to cut for all the differentials. Produced up to the war by a few specialized firms with limited capacity, from spring 1942, Ford, Dodge, and Chevrolet joined in fabricating these in a quantity more than a 100-fold greater than in 1939. Although Russia had their own jeep-like vehicle (the GAZ-64) up and running in 1940, a year earlier than the American jeep, in the early years of the war, they relied significantly on
Lend-Lease Lend-Lease, formally the Lend-Lease Act and introduced as An Act to Promote the Defense of the United States (),3,000 Hurricanes and >4,000 other aircraft) * 28 naval vessels: ** 1 Battleship. (HMS Royal Sovereign (05), HMS Royal Sovereign) * ...
vehicles, provided by the western allies. In 1943, they launched a further-developed version: the
GAZ-67 The GAZ-67 and the GAZ-67B (from January 1944) were general-purpose four-wheel drive A four-wheel drive, also called 4×4 ("four by four") or 4WD, is a two-axled vehicle drivetrain capable of providing torque to all of its wheels simultane ...
. By contrast, the
Axis powers The Axis powers, originally called the Rome–Berlin Axis and also Rome–Berlin–Tokyo Axis, was the military coalition which initiated World War II and fought against the Allies of World War II, Allies. Its principal members were Nazi Ge ...
' closest equivalent to the jeep, the VW Kübelwagen, of which only some 50,000 were built, though being equipped with
portal gear A portal axle (or portal gear lift) is an off-road vehicle suspension and drive technology where the axle tube or the half-shaft is offset from – usually above – the center of the wheel hub and where driving power is transferred to each wheel ...
hubs, only had rear-wheel drive.


1945–1960s

Willys introduced the model CJ-2A in 1945, the first full-production four-wheel-drive vehicle for sale in the general marketplace. Due to the ubiquitous World War II Jeep's success, its rugged utilitarianism set the pattern for many four-wheel-drive vehicles to come. Dodge also started production of the civilian 4WD Power Wagon trucks, for the 1946 model year. Both the Willys and the Dodge were developed directly from their WW II predecessors. Equally boxy to the Jeep, and also inline-four powered, the
Land Rover Land Rover is a brand of predominantly four-wheel drive, off-road capable vehicles, owned by British multinational car manufacturer Jaguar Land Rover (JLR), since 2008 a subsidiary of India's Tata Motors. JLR builds Land Rovers in Brazil ...
appeared at the Amsterdam Motor Show in 1948. Originally conceived as a stop-gap product for the struggling Rover car company, despite chronic underinvestment, it succeeded far better than their passenger cars. Inspired by a
Willys MB The Willys MB and the Ford GPW, both formally called the U.S. Army truck, ton, 4×4, command reconnaissance, commonly known as the Willys Jeep, Jeep, or jeep, and sometimes referred to by its List of U.S. military vehicles by supply catalog des ...
– the ubiquitous WWII "jeep" – that was frequently run off-road on the farm belonging to chief engineer
Maurice Wilks Maurice Fernand Cary Wilks (19 August 19048 September 1963) was an English automotive and aeronautical engineer, and by the time of his death in 1963, was the chairman of the Rover Company. He was the founder of the Land Rover marque and respo ...
, Land Rover developed the more refined yet still off-road capable luxury 4WD
Range Rover The Land Rover Range Rover, generally shortened to Range Rover, is a Sport utility vehicle, 4x4 Luxury car, luxury SUV produced by Land Rover, a marque and sub-brand of Jaguar Land Rover, owned by Tata Motors. The Range Rover line was launched ...
in the 1970s. With the acquisition of the "Jeep" name in 1950, Willys had cornered the brand. Its successor,
Kaiser Jeep Kaiser Jeep resulted from the 1953 merger of Kaiser Motors, an independent automaker, passenger car maker based in Willow Run, Michigan, with the Toledo, Ohio-based Willys, Willys-Overland Company. Willys-Overland had been at one point before W ...
, introduced a revolutionary 4WD wagon called the Wagoneer in 1963. Not only was it technically innovative, with
independent front suspension Independent suspension is any automobile suspension system that allows each wheel on the same axle to move vertically (i.e. reacting to a bump on the road) independently of the others. This is contrasted with a beam axle or deDion axle system in ...
and the first
automatic transmission An automatic transmission (AT) or automatic gearbox is a multi-speed transmission (mechanics), transmission used in motor vehicles that does not require any input from the driver to change forward gears under normal driving conditions. The 1904 ...
coupled to 4WD, but also it was equipped and finished as a regular passenger automobile. In effect, it was the ancestor of the modern
SUV A sport utility vehicle (SUV) is a car classification that combines elements of road-going passenger cars with features from off-road vehicles, such as raised ground clearance and four-wheel drive. There is no commonly agreed-upon definition ...
. The luxury
AMC AMC may refer to: Film and television * AMC Theatres, an American movie theater chain * AMC Networks, an American entertainment company ** AMC (TV channel) ** AMC+, streaming service ** AMC Networks International, an entertainment company *** ...
or
Buick Buick () is a division (business), division of the Automotive industry in the United States, American automobile manufacturer General Motors (GM). Started by automotive pioneer David Dunbar Buick in 1899, it was among the first American automobil ...
V8-powered Super Wagoneer produced from 1966 to 1969 raised the bar even higher. Jensen applied the Formula Ferguson (FF) full-time all-wheel-drive system to 318 units of their
Jensen FF The Jensen FF is a four-wheel drive grand tourer produced by British car manufacturer Jensen Motors between 1966 and 1971. It was the first non all-terrain production car equipped with four-wheel drive and an anti-lock braking system. The power ...
built from 1966 to 1971, marking the first time 4WD was used in a production GT sports car. While most 4WD systems split torque evenly, the Jensen split torque roughly 40% front, 60% rear by gearing the front and rear at different ratios.


1970s–1990s

American Motors Corporation American Motors Corporation (AMC; commonly referred to as American Motors) was an American automobile manufacturing company formed by the mergers and acquisitions, merger of Nash-Kelvinator Corporation and Hudson Motor Car Company on May 1, 19 ...
(AMC) acquired Kaiser's Jeep Division in 1970 and quickly upgraded and expanded the entire line of off-road 4WD vehicles. With its added roadworthiness, the top-range full-sized Grand Wagoneer continued to compete with traditional
luxury cars A luxury car is a passenger automobile providing superior comfort levels, features, and equipment. More expensive materials and surface finishes are used, and buyers expect a correspondingly high build quality. The term is relative and unavo ...
. Partially hand-built, it was relatively unchanged during its production through 1991, even after
Chrysler FCA US, LLC, Trade name, doing business as Stellantis North America and known historically as Chrysler ( ), is one of the "Big Three (automobile manufacturers), Big Three" automobile manufacturers in the United States, headquartered in Auburn H ...
's buyout of AMC.
Subaru is the automaker, automobile manufacturing division of Japanese transportation conglomerate (company), conglomerate Subaru Corporation (formerly known as Fuji Heavy Industries), the Automotive industry#By manufacturer, twenty-first largest aut ...
introduced the category-expanding Leone in 1972, an inexpensive compact
station wagon A station wagon (American English, US, also wagon) or estate car (British English, UK, also estate) is an automotive Car body style, body-style variant of a Sedan (automobile), sedan with its roof extended rearward over a shared passenger/cargo ...
with a light-duty, part-time four-wheel-drive system that could not be engaged on dry pavement. In September, AMC introduced Quadra Trac full-time AWD for the 1973 model year Jeep Cherokee and Wagoneer. Due to full-time AWD, which relieved the driver of getting out to lock hubs and having to manually select between 2WD and 4WD modes, it dominated all other makes in FIA rally competition. Gene Henderson and Ken Pogue won the
Press-on-Regardless Rally Press On Regardless (''POR'') is a road rally organized by the Detroit Region of the Sports Car Club of America. The Press On Regardless was first run in 1949 as a Time-Speed-Distance rally. In 1969, the POR became a stage rally. In 1972, the ...
FIA championship with a Quadra Trac-equipped Jeep in 1972. American Motors introduced the innovative
Eagle Eagle is the common name for the golden eagle, bald eagle, and other birds of prey in the family of the Accipitridae. Eagles belong to several groups of Genus, genera, some of which are closely related. True eagles comprise the genus ''Aquila ( ...
for the 1980 model year. These were the first American mass-production cars to use the complete front-engine, four-wheel-drive system. The AMC Eagle was offered as a sedan,
coupe A coupe or coupé (, ) is a passenger car with a sloping or truncated rear roofline and typically with two doors. The term ''coupé'' was first applied to horse-drawn carriages for two passengers without rear-facing seats. It comes from the Fr ...
, and station wagon with permanent automatic all-wheel drive passenger models. The new Eagles combined Jeep technology with an existing and proven AMC passenger
automobile platform A car platform is a shared set of common design, engineering, and production efforts, as well as major components, over a number of outwardly distinct models and even types of cars, often from different, but somewhat related, marques. It is prac ...
. They ushered a whole new product category of "sport-utility" or
crossover SUV A crossover, crossover SUV, or crossover utility vehicle (CUV) is a type of automobile with an increased ride height that is built on unibody chassis construction shared with passenger cars, as opposed to traditional sport utility vehicles ( ...
. AMC's Eagles came with the comfort and high-level appointments expected of regular passenger models and used the off-road technology for an extra margin of safety and traction. The Eagle's thick
viscous Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's rate-dependent resistance to a change in shape or to movement of its neighboring portions relative to one another. For liquids, it corresponds to the informal concept of ''thickness''; for example, syrup h ...
fluid center differential provided a quiet and smooth transfer of power that was directed proportionally to the axle with the greatest traction. This was a true full-time system operating only in four-wheel drive without undue wear on suspension or driveline components. No low range was used in the transfer case. This became the forerunner of the designs that followed from other manufacturers. The automobile press at the time tested the traction of the Eagles and described it as far superior to the Subaru's and that it could beat many so-called off-road vehicles. ''Four Wheeler'' magazine concluded that the AMC Eagle was "The beginning of a new generation of cars." The Eagles were popular (particularly in the
snowbelt The Snowbelt, Snow Belt, Frostbelt, or Frost Belt is the region near the Great Lakes in North America where heavy snowfall in the form of lake-effect snow is particularly common. Snowbelts are typically found downwind of the lakes, principally off ...
), had towing capacity, and came in several equipment levels including sport and luxury trims. Two additional models were added in 1981, the subcompact SX/4 and Kammback. A manual transmission and a front axle-disconnect feature were also made available for greater fuel economy. During 1981 and 1982, a unique
convertible A convertible or cabriolet () is a Car, passenger car that can be driven with or without a roof in place. The methods of retracting and storing the roof vary across eras and manufacturers. A convertible car's design allows an open-air drivin ...
was added to the line. The Eagle's
monocoque Monocoque ( ), also called structural skin, is a structural system in which loads are supported by an object's external skin, in a manner similar to an egg shell. The word ''monocoque'' is a French term for "single shell". First used for boats, ...
body was reinforced for the conversion and had a steel targa bar with a removable fiberglass roof section. The Eagle station wagon remained in production for one model year after Chrysler acquired AMC in 1987. Total AMC Eagle production was almost 200,000 vehicles.
Audi Audi AG () is a German automotive manufacturer of luxury vehicles headquartered in Ingolstadt, Bavaria, Germany. A subsidiary of the Volkswagen Group, Audi produces vehicles in nine production facilities worldwide. The origins of the compa ...
also introduced a permanently all-wheel-driven road-going car, the
Audi Quattro The Audi Quattro is a road and rally car, produced by the German automobile manufacturer Audi, part of the Volkswagen Group. It was first shown at the 1980 Geneva Motor Show on 3 March. Production continued through 1991. Background The wor ...
, in 1980. Audi's chassis engineer, Jörg Bensinger, had noticed in winter tests in Finland that a vehicle used by the West German Army, the
Volkswagen Volkswagen (VW; )English: , . is a German automotive industry, automobile manufacturer based in Wolfsburg, Lower Saxony, Germany. Established in 1937 by German Labour Front, The German Labour Front, it was revitalized into the global brand it ...
Iltis, could beat any high-performance Audi. He proposed developing a four-wheel-drive car that would also be used for
rallying Rallying is a wide-ranging form of motorsport with various competitive motoring elements such as speed tests (sometimes called "rally racing" in United States), navigation tests, or the ability to reach waypoints or a destination at a prescribed ...
to improve Audi's conservative image. The Audi quattro system became a feature on production cars. In 1987,
Toyota is a Japanese Multinational corporation, multinational Automotive industry, automotive manufacturer headquartered in Toyota City, Aichi, Japan. It was founded by Kiichiro Toyoda and incorporated on August 28, 1937. Toyota is the List of manuf ...
also developed a car built for competition in rally campaigns. A limited number of road-going FIA
Homologation Homologation (Greek language, Greek ''homologeo'', ὁμολογέω, "to agree") is the granting of approval by an official authority. This may be a court of law, a government department, or an academic or professional body, any of which would n ...
Special Vehicle Celica GT-Four (known as
Toyota Celica The is an automobile produced by Toyota from 1970 until 2006. The Celica name derives from the Latin word ''wikt:coelicus, coelica'' meaning ''heavenly'' or ''celestial''. In Japan, the Celica was exclusive to ''Toyota Corolla Store'' Car deale ...
All-Trac Turbo in North America) were produced. The
All-Trac {{short description, Proprietary full-time four-wheel drive system by Toyota All-Trac was a proprietary full-time four-wheel drive system used on a variety of Toyota badged models and the nameplate was used from 1988 to 2000. It was considered a r ...
system was later available on serial production
Toyota Camry The Toyota Camry (; Japanese: トヨタ・カムリ ''Toyota Kamuri'') is an automobile sold internationally by the Japanese auto manufacturer Toyota since 1982, spanning multiple generations. Originally compact in size (narrow-body), the Cam ...
,
Toyota Corolla The is a series of compact cars (formerly Subcompact car, subcompact) manufactured and marketed globally by the Japanese automaker Toyota Motor Corporation. Introduced in 1966, the Corolla was the best-selling car worldwide by 1974 and has bee ...
, and
Toyota Previa The Toyota Previa, also known as the in Japan, and Toyota Tarago in Australia, is a minivan that was produced by Toyota from 1990 until October 2019 across three generations. The name "Previa" is derived from the Spanish for "preview", as Toyo ...
models. Some of the earliest
mid-engined In automotive engineering, a mid-engine layout describes the placement of an automobile engine in front of the rear-wheel axles, but behind the front axle. History The mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive format can be considered the original layout of ...
four-wheel-drive cars were the various road-legal rally cars made for
Group B Group B was a set of regulations for Grand tourer, grand touring (GT) cars used in sports car racing and rallying introduced in 1982 by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA). Although permitted to enter a GT class of the World S ...
homologation, such as the
Ford RS200 The Ford RS200 is a mid-engined, all-wheel-drive sports car that was produced by Ford Motorsport in Boreham, UK, from 1984 to 1986. The road-going RS200 was the basis for Ford's Group B rally car and was designed to comply with FIA homologati ...
made from 1984 to 1986. In 1989, niche maker
Panther Westwinds Panther Westwinds (commonly known as Panther) was a manufacturer of niche sports cars and luxury cars, based in Surrey, England between 1972 and 1990. History Founded in 1972 by Robert Jankel, the Panther company initially manufactured retro-s ...
created a mid-engined four-wheel drive, the Panther Solo 2.


2000–present

In the United States, as of late 2013, AWD vehicles comprised 32% of new light vehicle sales, up 5% since 2008. This is in large part due to the popularity of the
crossover Crossover may refer to: Entertainment Music Albums * ''Cross Over'' (album), a 1987 album by Dan Peek, or the title song * ''Crossover'' (Dirty Rotten Imbeciles album), 1987 * ''Crossover'', an album by Intrigue * ''Crossover'', an album by ...
. Most crossovers offer the popular technology, in spite of it increasing vehicle price and fuel consumption. Car manufacturers have inundated consumers with marketing proclaiming AWD as a safety feature, although the advantage of AWD over FWD occurs in accelerating, not braking or steering. Tests have shown that though AWD gives improved acceleration in wintery conditions, it does not help with braking. In 2008, Nissan introduced the GT-R featuring a rear-mounted
transaxle A transaxle is single mechanical device which combines the functions of an automobile's transmission (mechanics), transmission, axle, and differential (mechanics), differential into one integrated assembly. It can be produced in both manual tra ...
. The AWD system requires two
drive shaft A drive shaft, driveshaft, driving shaft, tailshaft (Australian English), propeller shaft (prop shaft), or Cardan shaft (after Girolamo Cardano) is a component for transmitting mechanical power (physics), power, torque, and rotation, usually ...
s, one main shaft from the engine to the transaxle and differential and a second drive shaft from the transaxle to the front wheels.


Uses


Road racing

Spyker Spyker or Spijker was a Dutch carriage, automobile and aircraft manufacturer, started in 1880 by blacksmiths Jacobus and Hendrik-Jan Spijker. Originally located in Hilversum, the company relocated to Trompenburg, Amsterdam in 1898. Notable produ ...
is credited with building and racing the first four-wheel-drive racing car, the Spyker 60 HP in 1903.
Bugatti Automobiles Ettore Bugatti was a German then French automotive industry, manufacturer of high performance vehicle, high-performance automobiles. The company was founded in 1909 in the then-German Empire, German city of Molsheim, Alsace, by the ...
created a total of three four-wheel-drive racers, the Type 53, in 1932, but the cars were notorious for having poor handling. Miller produced the first 4WD car to qualify for the Indianapolis 500, the 1938 Miller Gulf Special. Ferguson Research Ltd. built the front-engined P99
Formula One Formula One (F1) is the highest class of worldwide racing for open-wheel single-seater formula Auto racing, racing cars sanctioned by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA). The FIA Formula One World Championship has been one ...
car that actually won a non-World Championship race with
Stirling Moss Sir Stirling Craufurd Moss (17 September 1929 – 12 April 2020) was a British racing driver and sports broadcasting, broadcaster, who competed in Formula One from to . Widely regarded as one of the greatest drivers to never win the Formula On ...
in 1961. In 1968,
Team Lotus Team Lotus was the motorsport sister company of English sports car manufacturer Lotus Cars. The team ran cars in many motorsport categories including Formula One, Formula Two, Formula Ford, Formula Junior, American Championship Car Racing, Ind ...
raced cars in the
Indy 500 The Indianapolis 500, formally known as the Indianapolis 500-Mile Race, and commonly shortened to Indy 500, is an annual automobile race held at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway in Speedway, Indiana, United States, an enclave suburb of Indian ...
and three years later in Formula 1 with the
Lotus 56 The Lotus 56 was a gas turbine-powered four-wheel-driven racing car, designed by Maurice Philippe as Team Lotus's STP-backed entry in the 1968 Indianapolis 500. All three cars entered and retired from the race with Joe Leonard's car expiring wh ...
, that had both turbine engines and 4WD, as well as the 1969 4WD-Lotus 63 that had the standard 3-litre V8 Ford
Cosworth Cosworth is a British automotive engineering company founded in London in 1958, specialising in high-performance internal combustion engines, powertrain, and electronics for auto racing, automobile racing (motorsport) and mainstream Automotiv ...
engine.
Matra Matra (an acronym for Mécanique Aviation Traction) was a major French industrial Conglomerate (company), conglomerate. Its business activities covered a wide range of industries, notably aerospace manufacturer, aerospace, defence industry, def ...
also raced a similar MS84, and
McLaren McLaren Racing Limited ( ) is a British auto racing, motor racing team based at the McLaren Technology Centre in Woking, Surrey, England. The team is a subsidiary of the McLaren Group, which owns a majority of the team. McLaren is best known a ...
entered their M9A in the
British Grand Prix The British Grand Prix is a Grand Prix motor racing event organised in the United Kingdom by Motorsport UK. First held by the Royal Automobile Club (RAC) in 1926 British Grand Prix, 1926, the British Grand Prix has been held annually since 1948 ...
, while engine manufacturers Cosworth produced their own version, which was tested but never raced. All these F1 cars were considered inferior to their RWD counterparts, as the advent of aerodynamic downforce meant that adequate traction could be obtained in a lighter and more mechanically efficient manner, and the idea was discontinued, though Lotus tried repeatedly. Nissan and Audi had success with all-wheel drive in road racing with the former's advent of the
Nissan Skyline GT-R The is a Japanese sports car based on the Nissan Skyline range. The first cars named "Skyline GT-R" were produced between 1969 and 1972 under the model code KPGC10, and were successful in Japanese touring car racing events. This model was fol ...
in 1989. So successful was the car that it dominated the Japanese circuit for the first years of production, going on to bigger and more impressive wins in Australia before weight penalties eventually levied a'' de facto ''ban on the car. Most controversial was the win pulled off at the 1990
Macau Grand Prix The Macau Grand Prix (; ) is an annual motorsport road racing event for automobiles and motorcycles held on the Guia Circuit in Macau. The event includes the Formula Regional and Motorcycle Grand Prix title races, with other races for Touri ...
, where the car led from start to finish. Audi's dominance in the
Trans-Am Series The Trans-Am Series presented by Pirelli is a sports car racing series held in North America. Founded in 1966, it is sanctioned by the Sports Car Club of America (SCCA). Primarily based in the United States, the series competes on a variety of ...
in 1988 was equally controversial, as it led to a weight penalty midseason and to a rule revision banning all AWD cars; its dominance in
Super Touring Super Touring, Class 2 or Class II was a auto racing, motor racing touring car category defined by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) for national touring car racing in 1993. It was based on the "2 litre Touring Car Form ...
eventually led to a FIA ban on AWD system in 1998. New
24 Hours of Le Mans The 24 Hours of Le Mans () is an endurance-focused Sports car racing, sports car race held annually near the city of Le Mans, France. It is widely considered to be one of the world's most prestigious races, and is one of the races—along with ...
regulations may revive AWD/4WD in road racing, though such systems are only allowed in new hybrid-powered
Le Mans prototype A Le Mans Prototype (LMP) is a type of sports prototype race car used in various races and championships, including the 24 Hours of Le Mans, FIA World Endurance Championship, IMSA SportsCar Championship, European Le Mans Series, and Asian Le M ...
s. One example is the Audi R18 e-tron quattro (winner of race, the first hybrid/4WD to win Le Mans), using an electric motor in the front axle with the gasoline engine in the rear.


In heavy trucks

Medium-duty and heavy-duty trucks have recently adopted 4×4 drivetrains; 4×4 medium-duty trucks became common after Ford began selling
Ford Super Duty The Ford Super Duty (also known as the Ford F-Series Super Duty) is a series of heavy-duty pickup trucks produced by the Ford Motor Company since the 1999 model year. Slotted above the consumer-oriented Ford F-150, the Super Duty trucks are an e ...
trucks. These trucks shared many parts between the light-duty and medium-duty, reducing production costs. The
Dana 60 The Dana/Spicer Model 60 is an automotive axle manufactured by Dana Holding Corporation and used in OEM pickup and limited passenger car applications by Chevrolet, Dodge, Chrysler, Jeep, Ford and Land Rover. There are front and rear versions of ...
front axle is used on both medium- and light-duty Super Duty trucks. Furthermore, the Big Three share/shared parts between the companies, reducing costs. The Dana S 110 is currently being used for the rear drive, under Ford and Ram's medium-duty trucks. The Dana 110 was also used on the
General Motors General Motors Company (GM) is an American Multinational corporation, multinational Automotive industry, automotive manufacturing company headquartered in Detroit, Michigan, United States. The company is most known for owning and manufacturing f ...
4×4s.
Ram Trucks Ram Trucks (stylized as RAM) is an American brand of light to mid-weight pickup heavy duty trucks and other commercial vehicles, and a division of Stellantis North America (previously Chrysler Group LLC). It was established in a spin-off o ...
began selling medium-duty trucks, 4×4 and 4×2, in 2008. General Motors sold a
4×4 A four-wheel drive, also called 4×4 ("four by four") or 4WD, is a two-axled vehicle drivetrain capable of providing torque to all of its wheels simultaneously. It may be full-time or on-demand, and is typically linked via a transfer case pro ...
for model years 2005–2009. File:C4500 GM 4x4 Medium duty trucks.jpg, GM 4×4 medium-duty trucks File:4x4HD International Workstar.jpg, Heavy-duty International Workstar File:Ford SD medium duty 4x4 drive train.jpg, Ford medium-duty 4×4 drive train


In construction equipment

Volvo introduced the Model 646 four-wheel-drive
backhoe loader A backhoe loader, also called a loader backhoe, loader excavator, tractor excavator, digger or colloquially shortened to backhoe within the industry, is a heavy equipment (construction), heavy equipment vehicle that consists of a tractor-like u ...
in 1977.


Terminology

In engineering terms, "four-wheel drive" designates a vehicle with power delivered to four wheel ends spread over at least two axles. The term "4×4" (pronounced ''four by four'') was in use to describe North American military four-wheel-drive vehicles as early as the 1940s, with the first number indicating the number of wheel ends on a vehicle and the second indicating the number of driven wheels. Trucks with dual tires on the rear axle and two driven axles are designated as 4×4s despite having six wheels, because the paired rear wheels behave as a single wheel for traction and classification purposes. True
6×6 Six-wheel drive (6WD or 6×6) is an all-wheel drive drivetrain configuration of three axles with at least two wheels on each axle capable of being driven simultaneously by the vehicle's engine. Unlike four-wheel drive drivetrains, the configura ...
vehicles, which have three powered axles, are classified as 6×6s regardless of how many wheels they have. Examples of these with two rear, one front axle are the six-wheeled Pinzgauer, which is popular with defense forces around the globe, and 10-wheeled
GMC CCKW GMC may refer to: Government India * Gandhinagar Municipal Corporation, in Gujarat * Gobichettipalayam Municipal Corporation, in Tamil Nadu * Guntur Municipal Corporation, in Andhra Pradesh * Guwahati Municipal Corporation, in Assam * Gwalior ...
made famous by the
U.S. Army The United States Army (USA) is the primary land service branch of the United States Department of Defense. It is designated as the Army of the United States in the United States Constitution.Article II, section 2, clause 1 of the United Stat ...
in World War II. Four-wheeler is a related term applying to
all-terrain vehicle An all-terrain vehicle (ATV), also known as a light utility vehicle (LUV), a quad bike or quad (if it has four wheels), as defined by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), is a vehicle that travels on low-pressure tires, has a seat ...
s, and not to be confused with four-wheel drive. The "four" in the instance referring to the vehicle having four wheels, not necessarily all driven.


Unusual systems

Prompted by a perceived need for a simple, inexpensive all-terrain vehicle for oil exploration in North Africa, French motor manufacturer
Citroën Citroën ()The double-dot diacritic over the 'e' is a diaeresis () indicating the two vowels are sounded separately, and not as a diphthong. is a French automobile brand. The "Automobiles Citroën" manufacturing company was founded on 4 June 19 ...
developed the 2CV Sahara in 1958. Unlike other 4×4 vehicles, which use a conventional
transfer case A transfer case is an intermediate gearbox that transfers power from the transmission of a motor vehicle to the driven axles of four-wheel-drive, all-wheel-drive, and other multi-axled on- and off-road machines. A part of the vehicle's drivetr ...
to drive the front and rear axles, the Sahara had two engines, each independently driving a separate axle, with the rear engine facing backwards. The two throttles, clutches, and gear-change mechanisms could be linked, so the two engines could run together, or they could be split and the car driven solely by either engine. Combined with twin fuel tanks and twin batteries (which could be set up to run either or both engines), the redundancy of two separate drive trains meant that they could make it back to civilization even after major mechanical failures. Only around 700 of these cars were built, and only 27 are known to exist today. BMC experimented with a twin-engined
Mini Moke The Mini Moke is a small, front-wheel-drive utility and recreational convertible, conceived and manufactured as a lightweight military vehicle by British Motor Corporation (BMC), and subsequently marketed for civilian use under the Austin Moto ...
(dubbed the "Twini Moke") in the mid-1960s, but never put it into production. This made advantage of the Mini's 'power pack' layout, with a transverse engine and the
gearbox A transmission (also called a gearbox) is a mechanical device invented by Louis Renault (who founded Renault) which uses a gear set—two or more gears working together—to change the speed, direction of rotation, or torque multiplication/r ...
in the
engine sump Within piston engines, a wet sump is part of a lubrication system whereby the crankcase sump is used as an integral oil reservoir. An alternative system is the dry sump, whereby oil is pumped from a shallow sump into an external reservoir.Wet sum ...
. Simply by fitting a second engine/gearbox unit across the rear, a rudimentary 4×4 system could be produced. Early prototypes had separate gear levers and clutch systems for each engine. Later versions sent for evaluation by the
British Army The British Army is the principal Army, land warfare force of the United Kingdom. the British Army comprises 73,847 regular full-time personnel, 4,127 Brigade of Gurkhas, Gurkhas, 25,742 Army Reserve (United Kingdom), volunteer reserve perso ...
had more user-friendly linked systems. In 1965,
A. J. M. Chadwick A is the first letter of the Latin and English alphabet. A may also refer to: Science and technology Quantities and units * ''a'', a measure for the attraction between particles in the Van der Waals equation * ''A'' value, a measure of s ...
patented a 4WD system, GB 1113068, that used hemispherical wheels for an all-terrain vehicle. Twenty years later, B. T. E. Warne, patented, GB 2172558, an improvement on Chadwick's design that did not use differential gear assemblies. By using near-spherical wheels with the provision to tilt and turn each wheel co-ordinatively, the driven wheels maintain constant traction. Furthermore, all driven wheels steer, and as pairing of wheels is not necessary, vehicles with an odd number of wheels are possible without affecting the system's integrity. Progressive deceleration is made possible by dynamically changing the front-to-rear effective wheel diameter ratios.
Volkswagen Motorsport The Volkswagen R Motorsport was a works rally team of the Germany, German car manufacturer Volkswagen, who competed in the World Rally Championship (WRC) and Dakar Rally. The team started competing in WRC in 1978 World Rally Championship season ...
, with the help of
Austria Austria, formally the Republic of Austria, is a landlocked country in Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine Federal states of Austria, states, of which the capital Vienna is the List of largest cities in Aust ...
n company Kaimann Racing for the development, used a twin engine Golf Mk2 for the 1985, 1986 and 1987
Pikes Peak International Hill Climb The Pikes Peak International Hill Climb (PPIHC), also known as The Race to the Clouds, is an annual automobile Hillclimbing, hillclimb to the summit of Pikes Peak in the U.S. state of Colorado. The track measures and has over 156 tur ...
. Suzuki Motors introduced the
Suzuki Escudo The Suzuki Vitara is a series of SUVs produced by Suzuki in five generations since 1988. The second and third generation were known as the Suzuki Grand Vitara, while the fourth generation eschewed the "Grand" prefix. In Japan and a number of o ...
Pikes Peak Edition in 1996. Earlier Suzuki versions were twin-engined; from 1996 on, the engine is a twin-turbocharged 2.0-L V6, mated to a sequential six-speed manual transmission. Nissan Motors has developed a system called E-4WD, designed for cars that are normally front-wheel drive; however, the rear wheels are powered by electric motors. This system was introduced in some variants of the
Nissan Cube The Nissan Cube is a mini MPV produced by carmaker Nissan between 1998 and 2019. Initially sold only in Japan, the Cube was sold in North American markets from 2009 to 2014, and in European markets from 2009 to 2011. In Japan, it was exclusive to ...
and Tiida. (This is similar to the system used on the
Ford Escape The Ford Escape is a compact crossover SUV manufactured and marketed by Ford Motor Company since the 2001 model year. The first Ford SUV derived from a car platform, the Escape fell below the Ford Explorer#Second generation (UN105/150; 1995), F ...
Hybrid AWD.) Chrysler's Jeep Division debuted the twin-engined, Jeep Hurricane concept at the 2005
North American International Auto Show The Detroit Auto Show, formerly known as the North American International Auto Show (NAIAS), is an annual auto show held in Detroit, Michigan. Hosted at Huntington Place (formerly Cobo Center) since 1965, it is among the largest auto shows in ...
in Detroit. This vehicle has a unique "crab crawl" capability, which allows it to rotate 360° in place. This is accomplished by driving the left wheels as a pair and the right wheels as a pair, as opposed to driving the front and rear pairs. A central gearbox allows one side to drive in the opposite direction from the other. It also has dual
Hemi Hemi may refer to: People Surname * Jack Hemi (1914–1996), New Zealand freezing worker, rugby union and league player, shearer * Ronald Hemi (1933–2000), New Zealand rugby union player Given name * Hemi Bawa, Indian painter and sculptor * ...
V8s. Some
hybrid vehicles A hybrid vehicle is one that uses two or more distinct types of power, such as submarines that use diesel when surfaced and batteries when submerged. Other means to store energy include pressurized fluid in hydraulic hybrids. Hybrid powertrai ...
such as the
Lexus is the luxury vehicle division of the Japanese automaker Toyota, Toyota Motor Corporation. The Lexus brand is marketed in more than 90 countries and territories worldwide and is Japan's largest-selling make of premium cars. It has ranked amon ...
RX400h provide power to an AWD system through a pair of electric motors, one to the front wheels and one to the rear. In the case of the AWD model version of the Lexus RX400h (and its Toyota-branded counterpart, the Harrier hybrid), the front wheels can also receive drive power directly from the vehicle's gasoline engine, as well as via the electric motors, whereas the rear wheels derive power only from the second electric motor. Transfer of power is managed automatically by internal electronics based on traction conditions and need, making this an all-wheel-drive system. The 4RM system used in the Ferrari FF and Purosangue is unique in that it has a rear transaxle with a secondary front transaxle connected directly to the engine. The car operates primarily as a rear-wheel drive vehicle. Clutches in the front transaxle engage when the rear wheels slip. Drive to the front wheels is transmitted through two infinitely variable clutch packs that are allowed to 'slip' to give the required road wheel speeds. The front transaxle has three gears, two forward, and reverse. The two forward gears of the front transmission match the lower four forward gears of the rear transmission. It is not used in higher gears. The connection between this gearbox and each front wheel is via independent Haldex-type clutches, without a differential. Due to the difference in ratios, the clutches continually slip and only transmit, at most, 20% of the engine's torque.


Systems by design type


Center differential with mechanical lock

*
Alfa Romeo 164 The Alfa Romeo 164 (Type 164) is a four-door executive saloon manufactured and marketed by Italian automaker Alfa Romeo from 1987 to 1998, styled by Pininfarina, and cooperatively designed and sharing platforms and numerous elements with the Fi ...
Q4 (central viscous coupling, epicyclic unit and Torsen rear differential) *
Alfa Romeo 155 The Alfa Romeo 155 (Type 167) is a compact executive car produced by Italian automobile manufacturer Alfa Romeo between 1992 and 1998. It was unveiled in January 1992 at Barcelona, with the first public launch in March 1992, at the Geneva Motor S ...
Q4 (central epicyclic unit, Ferguson viscous coupling and Torsen rear differential) *
AMC Eagle The AMC Eagle is a compact four-wheel drive passenger vehicle manufactured and marketed in a single generation by American Motors Corporation (AMC) for model years 1980 through 1987 and continued by Chrysler, Chrysler Corporation following it ...
(central viscous coupling) *
Audi Audi AG () is a German automotive manufacturer of luxury vehicles headquartered in Ingolstadt, Bavaria, Germany. A subsidiary of the Volkswagen Group, Audi produces vehicles in nine production facilities worldwide. The origins of the compa ...
Quattro Coupé, 80, 90, 100 & 200 (locking center and rear differentials) – up to 1987 *
Audi Q7 The Audi Q7 is a crossover SUV made by the German manufacturer Audi, unveiled in September 2005 at the Frankfurt Motor Show. Production of this seven-seater SUV began in November 2005 at the Volkswagen Bratislava Plant in Bratislava, Slovakia. ...
– double pinion 50/50 with lockup clutch pack * BMW
3 series The BMW 3 series is a line of compact executive cars manufactured by the German automaker BMW since May 1975. It is the successor to the BMW 02 Series, 02 series and has been produced in seven generations. The first generation of the 3 Series ...
and
5 series The BMW 5 Series is an executive car manufactured and marketed by BMW since 1972. It is the successor to the BMW New Class#New Class Sedans, BMW New Class sedans and is currently in its eighth generation. The car is sold as either a sedan (car), s ...
in the 1980s – planetary center differential with a 37–63 (front-back) torque split and viscous lock (also in rear differential but not front differential) *
Chevrolet Chevrolet ( ) is an American automobile division of the manufacturer General Motors (GM). In North America, Chevrolet produces and sells a wide range of vehicles, from subcompact automobiles to medium-duty commercial trucks. Due to the promi ...
''Rounded-Line'' K Fleetside, K Stepside, K Blazer, and K Suburban – permanent four-wheel-drive (1973–1979) two-speed
New Process New Venture Gear was an automobile and light truck transmission company that was started in 1990 as the first-ever joint venture between any of the Big Three U.S. automakers. General Motors and Chrysler Corporation were the participants. Operati ...
203 transfer case, center differential with 50:50
torque In physics and mechanics, torque is the rotational analogue of linear force. It is also referred to as the moment of force (also abbreviated to moment). The symbol for torque is typically \boldsymbol\tau, the lowercase Greek letter ''tau''. Wh ...
split and lock. An ''Eaton Automatic Differential Lock'' was optional for the rear
hypoid A spiral bevel gear is a bevel gear with helical teeth. The main application of this is in a vehicle differential, where the direction of drive from the drive shaft must be turned 90 degrees to drive the wheels. The helical design produces le ...
differential. * Ford Escort RS (RS 2000 16v 4×4 models and RS Cosworth), Sierra Cosworth, Sierra and Granada 4×4 models, *
Dodge Power Wagon The Dodge Power Wagon is a four-wheel drive medium duty truck that was produced in various model series from 1945 to 1980 by Dodge.Press Kit: 2005 Dodge Ram Power Wagon - Legendary Dodge Ram Power Wagon Returns. Chrysler Corporation, DaimlerChrysl ...
– permanent four-wheel-drive (1974–1979) two-speed
New Process New Venture Gear was an automobile and light truck transmission company that was started in 1990 as the first-ever joint venture between any of the Big Three U.S. automakers. General Motors and Chrysler Corporation were the participants. Operati ...
203 transfer case, center differential with 50:50
torque In physics and mechanics, torque is the rotational analogue of linear force. It is also referred to as the moment of force (also abbreviated to moment). The symbol for torque is typically \boldsymbol\tau, the lowercase Greek letter ''tau''. Wh ...
split and lock. *
Ford Expedition The Ford Expedition is a full-size SUV produced by Ford since the 1997 model year. The successor to the Ford Bronco, the Expedition shifted its form factor from an off-road oriented vehicle to a truck-based station wagon. Initially competing ...
(1997–present) and Expedition EL/Max (2007–present) – automatic ''ControlTrac'' four-wheel drive with two-speed dual range
BorgWarner BorgWarner Inc. is an American automotive and Electric vehicle, e-mobility supplier headquartered in Auburn Hills, Michigan. As of 2023, the company maintains production facilities and sites at 92 locations in 24 countries, and generates revenu ...
transfer case and intelligent locking center multi-disc differential *
Ford Explorer The Ford Explorer is a range of Sport utility vehicle, SUVs manufactured by Ford Motor Company since the 1991 model year. The first five-door SUV produced by Ford, the Explorer, was introduced as a replacement for the three-door Ford Bronco II ...
(1995–2010) – automatic ''ControlTrac'' four-wheel drive with two-speed dual range BorgWarner transfer case and intelligent locking center multi-disc differential *
Ford F-Series The Ford F-Series is a series of light-duty trucks marketed and manufactured by Ford Motor Company since model year 1948 as a range of full-sized pickup trucks — positioned between Ford's Ford Ranger (T6), Ranger and Ford Super Duty, ...
– permanent four-wheel-drive (1974–1979) two-speed
New Process New Venture Gear was an automobile and light truck transmission company that was started in 1990 as the first-ever joint venture between any of the Big Three U.S. automakers. General Motors and Chrysler Corporation were the participants. Operati ...
203 transfer case, center differential with 50:50
torque In physics and mechanics, torque is the rotational analogue of linear force. It is also referred to as the moment of force (also abbreviated to moment). The symbol for torque is typically \boldsymbol\tau, the lowercase Greek letter ''tau''. Wh ...
split and lock. * GMC ''Rounded-Line'' K Wideside, K Fenderside, K Jimmy, and K Suburban – permanent four-wheel-drive (1973–1979) two-speed New Process 203 transfer case, center planetary differential with 50:50 torque split and lock. An ''Eaton Automatic Differential Lock'' was optional for the rear hypoid differential. * H1 &
Humvee The High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV; colloquial: Humvee) is a family of Military light utility vehicle, light, four-wheel drive Military vehicle#Military trucks, military trucks and utility vehicles produced by AM General. It ...
NVG 242HD AMG open center differential, locked center differential, Neutral, low range locked. Also Torsen1 differential at the front and rear axle, The H1 moved to Torsen2 when ABS was added. The H1 Alpha had optional locking differentials in place of torsens. * Hummer H2, H3 40/60 planetary with lock * Jeep Grand Cherokee, Commander (except models equipped with Quadra-Trac I) *
Jeep Liberty The Jeep Liberty is a four door unibody compact SUV manufactured and marketed by Jeep for model years 2002–2012 over two generations, internally designated the KJ (2002–2007) and KK (2008–2012), respectively. Both generations were marketed ...
,
Jeep Cherokee (XJ) The Jeep Cherokee (XJ) is a sport utility vehicle developed by American Motors Corporation (AMC) and marketed across a single generation by Jeep in the United States from 1983 (model year 1984) through 2001 — and globally through 2014. It was ...
,
Dodge Durango The Dodge Durango is a mid-size SUV produced by Dodge starting with the 1998 model year. The first two generations were very similar in that both were based on the Dodge Dakota and Dodge Ram, both featured a body-on-frame construction and both ...
( Select-Trac) – NV 242 transfer case- rear drive, open center differential, locked center differential, Neutral, low range * Full size Jeeps with Borg Warner QuadraTrac: limited-slip center differential, 50/50 locked center differential. Low range could be used in locked or unlocked mode, allowing for use of the low range on pavement. *
Land Rover Defender The Land Rover Defender (introduced as the Land Rover One Ten, joined in 1984 by the Land Rover Ninety, plus the extra-length Land Rover One Two Seven in 1985) is a series of British off-road cars and pick-up truck, pickup trucks. They have f ...
(and Series III V8 models) *
Land Rover Discovery The Land Rover Discovery is a series of five or seven-seater family SUVs, produced under the Land Rover marque, from the British manufacturer Land Rover, and later Jaguar Land Rover. The series is currently in its fifth iteration (or generat ...
/LR3 * Land Rover Freelander * Lada Niva (VAZ-2121) – full-time 4WD using open center differential. Transfer case with high/low range and manual central diff lock. Low range selectable in locked or unlocked mode, allowing use on pavement. * Lexus RX300 -viscous coupling unit, viscous coupling across the otherwise open center differential. * Lincoln Navigator (1998–2006) – automatic ''ControlTrac'' four-wheel drive with two-speed dual range BorgWarner transfer case and intelligent locking center multi-disc differential ** Navigator and Navigator L (2007–present) use a one-speed single range transfer case, no reduction gearing * Mercedes-Benz
Unimog The Unimog (pronunciation in American English: ''YOU-nuh-mog''; British English: ''YOU-knee-mog''; German: , ) is a Daimler Truck line of multi-purpose, highly offroad capable AWD vehicles produced since 1948. Utilizing engine-driven power tak ...
(locking center and rear with up to 10 low range gears). *
Mercedes-Benz G-Class The Mercedes-Benz G-Class, colloquially known as the G-Wagon or G-Wagen (as an abbreviation of Geländewagen), is a four-wheel drive luxury SUV manufactured by Magna Steyr (formerly Steyr-Daimler-Puch) in Graz, Styria, Austria, and sold by Mercede ...
(locking center and lockers on both front- and rear axle) * Mercedes-Benz GL-Class – 4Matic all-wheel-drive system * Mitsubishi Pajero (also known as Montero or Shogun) * Porsche Cayenne – 38/62 planetary with lockup clutch pack *
Range Rover The Land Rover Range Rover, generally shortened to Range Rover, is a Sport utility vehicle, 4x4 Luxury car, luxury SUV produced by Land Rover, a marque and sub-brand of Jaguar Land Rover, owned by Tata Motors. The Range Rover line was launched ...
Classic 1970–1995 all full-time 4WD either plate LSD, manual lock or Ferguson viscous center differential. * Range Rover 2nd Gen. 1994–2002 full-time 4WD Ferguson viscous center differential * Suzuki Grand Vitara/Escudo (2005 and later models, excepting the XL-7) -full-time 4WD using limited-slip center differential, off-road 4WD with selectable center differential lock and low range transfer case 4 mode (4h, 4h lock, 4l n), traction control system, traction control and electronic stability control *
Subaru is the automaker, automobile manufacturing division of Japanese transportation conglomerate (company), conglomerate Subaru Corporation (formerly known as Fuji Heavy Industries), the Automotive industry#By manufacturer, twenty-first largest aut ...
– manual transmissions come with 50/50 viscous-type center differential; in some markets, select models with a manual transmission were equipped with synchronized low range gears on the transmissions input shaft; performance models include a planetary differential with computer-regulated lockup; automatic transmission models have an electronically controlled variable transfer clutch. * Toyota Land Cruiser * Toyota Sequoia (Multi-mode) * Volkswagen Touareg -double pinion 50/50 with lockup clutch pack


Torsen center differential

* Alfa Romeo Q4s – with (
Torsen Torsen Torque-Sensing (full name Torsen traction) is a type of limited-slip differential used in automobiles. It was invented by American Vernon Gleasman and manufactured by the Gleason Corporation. Torsen is a portmanteau of Torque-Sensing. '' ...
T-3): ** Alfa Romeo 156, 156 Crosswagon and Sportwagon ** Alfa Romeo 159, 159 ** Alfa Romeo Brera, Brera, Alfa Romeo Brera, Spider *
Audi Audi AG () is a German automotive manufacturer of luxury vehicles headquartered in Ingolstadt, Bavaria, Germany. A subsidiary of the Volkswagen Group, Audi produces vehicles in nine production facilities worldwide. The origins of the compa ...
s with quattro (four-wheel-drive system), quattro – various iterations of Torsen, the T-3 starting from the 2007 Audi RS4, B7 RS4 ** Audi 80, 80, 90 & Coupé (Typ 89) ** Audi 100, 100 & 200 ** Audi A4, A4, Audi S4, S4, Audi RS4, RS4 ** Audi A5, A5 & S5 ** Audi A6, A6, Audi S6, S6, Audi RS6, RS6 ** Audi A8, A8, Audi S8, S8 ** Audi Q5, Q5, Audi Q7, Q7 * Bentley Continental GT, Bentley Continental Flying Spur (2005) initially Torsen T-2, current have T-3 * Chevrolet Trailblazer (Mid-size SUV), Chevrolet Trailblazer SS Torsen T-3 * Lexus GX 470, Toyota Land Cruiser Prado (J120) Torsen T-3 *Range Rover 3rd Gen. 2002–2009 * Toyota 4Runner (Only 2003-2009 model and 2010+ Limited V6 model) Torsen T-3 with lock * Toyota FJ Cruiser (only manual models) Torsen T-3 with lock * Toyota Hilux Surf Torsen T-3 with lock * Toyota Land Cruiser 200/2008/V8 Torsen T-3 with lock * Toyota Sequoia (only 2005–07 Models) * Volkswagen, Volkswagen Passenger Cars with 4motion: ** Volkswagen Passat Torsen T-2 (B5.5 model, not latest B6 model with transverse engine) ** Volkswagen Phaeton Torsen T-2


Non-locking center differential

* BMW BMW 3 Series (E46), 3-series and BMW X5 (E53), X5 between 2001 and BMW xDrive, xDrive – planetary center differential with permanent 38–62 (front-back) torque split # * Cadillac Escalade, STS AWD, SRX AWD (The first two generations had a viscous clutch on the center differential) # * Chrysler 300C AWD# * Dodge Ramcharger 1974–1981 – NP203 FullTime 4WD Transfer Case * Dodge Magnum, Charger AWD # * GMC Yukon Denali, XL Denali, Sierra Denali # * Mercedes 4MATIC cars, R class, and ML class (note some MLs had low range) # * Plymouth Trail Duster 1974–1981 – NP203 FullTime 4WD Transfer Case * Toyota Highlander # * Toyota Sienna AWD (−2010 only) # The above systems ending with "#" function by selectively using the traction control system (via ABS) to brake a slipping wheel.


Multiple-clutch systems

* Acura RL, RDX (SH-AWD) Right and left axle shaft * Acura MDX SH-AWD & VTM4 * Ford Explorer#Fifth generation (U502; 2011), Ford Explorer – Ford's full-time shift-on-the-fly ''Intelligent 4WD System'' (I-4WD) on the 2011 Explorer with ''Terrain Management System'' and RSC (Roll Stability Control), Curve Control functionality, HDC (Hill Descent Control) and HAA (Hill Ascent Assist). * Honda Ridgeline * Honda Pilot * Infiniti FX (ATTESA, ATTESA E-TS) * Mercedes-Benz 1st generation 4Matic, 4MATIC (normally rear-drive, automatic clutch in transfer case engages 4WD on demand) * Mitsubishi GTO MR/3000GT VR-4 * Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution Series Mitsubishi S-AWC, S-AWC * 2010 Mitsubishi Outlander GT Mitsubishi S-AWC, S-AWC * Mitsubishi Outlander (2003–2006) independent front and rear axle coupling, and Active Center Differential. * Nissan GT-R (ATTESA, ATTESA E-TS) *
Nissan Skyline GT-R The is a Japanese sports car based on the Nissan Skyline range. The first cars named "Skyline GT-R" were produced between 1969 and 1972 under the model code KPGC10, and were successful in Japanese touring car racing events. This model was fol ...
(ATTESA, ATTESA E-TS and ATTESA, ATTESA E-TS-PRO) front axle coupling, rear differential locking * Nissan Skyline GTS4 (ATTESA E-TS) * Nissan A31 Cefiro SE4 (ATTESA E-TS) * Porsche 959 PSK front axle coupling, rear differential locking * Saab 9-3, Saab 9-5, Saab 9-4X (Saab XWD)


Multi-plate clutch coupling

* Audi A3 quattro, Audi S3, Audi TT quattro, Audi R8 (road car), Audi R8 (with Haldex Traction) * BMW BMW xDrive, xDrive: BMW 3 Series (E90), latest 3 Series, BMW 5 Series (E60), latest 5 series, X3, BMW X5 (E70), latest X5 series * Chevrolet Equinox (GMPCA) * Chrysler Pacifica (
BorgWarner BorgWarner Inc. is an American automotive and Electric vehicle, e-mobility supplier headquartered in Auburn Hills, Michigan. As of 2023, the company maintains production facilities and sites at 92 locations in 24 countries, and generates revenu ...
ITM3e) (on 2007 model) * Dodge Nitro (Quadra-Trac 1) * Dodge Caliber * Ford: Escape, Freestyle, Edge, Fusion, Five Hundred (Freestyle, FiveHundred Haldex Traction based) (Escape Control Trac II, based) * Honda CR-V, HR-V, Element * Hyundai Santa Fe, Hyundai Tucson Borg-Warner ITM 3e magnetic multi-plate clutch coupling * Hyundai Veracruz IMJ magnetic multi-plate clutch coupling * Infiniti: G35x, M35x * Jeep Compass (Freedom Drive) * Jeep Grand Cherokee and SRT8 NVG 249, 247 * Land Rover Freelander, Land Rover Freelander 2/LR2 (also Haldex Traction)According to Car and Driver Vol52 No 8, February 2007, page 110 * Lamborghini: AWD variants VT series (viscous traction) * Lincoln (automobile), Lincoln: MKS, MKZ * Mazdaspeed6 (a power takeoff unit linked to clutch pack with torque sensitive rear differential) * Mazda: Mazda3, Mazdaspeed6, Tribute, CX-3, CX-30, CX-5, CX-50, CX-60, CX-7, CX-8, CX-9 (tribute Control Trac II, based) * Mercury (automobile), Mercury: Milan, Montego, Mariner (Montego Haldex Traction–based) * Mitsubishi Outlander (current generation) * Nissan Murano automatic with manual lockup switch * Porsche 911 AWD variants (a version of
BorgWarner BorgWarner Inc. is an American automotive and Electric vehicle, e-mobility supplier headquartered in Auburn Hills, Michigan. As of 2023, the company maintains production facilities and sites at 92 locations in 24 countries, and generates revenu ...
ITM3e) — excluding the 964-series Porsche 911 Carrera 4 31/69 planetary center differential * Pontiac Torrent (GMPCA) *
Subaru is the automaker, automobile manufacturing division of Japanese transportation conglomerate (company), conglomerate Subaru Corporation (formerly known as Fuji Heavy Industries), the Automotive industry#By manufacturer, twenty-first largest aut ...
low powered automatic transmission models * Subaru Legacy, Subaru Outback, Outback, Subaru Impreza, Impreza, Subaru Forester, Forester, Subaru Tribeca, Tribeca automatic transmission models: mechanical front drive, clutch coupled rear axle * Suzuki: SX4, XL7, Aerio, Swift/Cultus based Subaru Justy. (viscous clutch) * Toyota RAV4 – from 2005 (third generation only) * Toyota Sienna AWD (2011 and newer only) * Volkswagen Golf 4motion, Volkswagen Jetta 4motion, Volkswagen Tiguan 4motion, Volkswagen Passat (B6 and later) 4motion, Volkswagen T-Roc 4motion, Volkswagen Caddy 4motion (Haldex Traction) * Volvo: S40, S60, S80, V50, V70, XC70, XC90 (Visco system until 2003; then all Haldex Traction–based) Note: the above all function like 2WD when the multi-plate clutch coupling is not engaged (with exception of Subaru models), and like 4WD high-range in a part-time 4WD system when the clutch is engaged (usually by computer although some allow manual control). Some in this category have varying degrees of control in the torque distribution between front and rear by allowing some of the clutches in a multi-plate clutch coupling to engage and slip varying amounts. An example of a system like this is the BorgWarner i-Trac(TM) system. Note: the Haldex Traction-based car list was created from the list on Haldex Traction corporate website
Haldex Cars
A version of the
BorgWarner BorgWarner Inc. is an American automotive and Electric vehicle, e-mobility supplier headquartered in Auburn Hills, Michigan. As of 2023, the company maintains production facilities and sites at 92 locations in 24 countries, and generates revenu ...
ITM3e system is used on 2006 and up Porsche 911TT's. The Borg-Warner ITM 3e is also used in the 2006-now Hyundai Santa Fe and the Hyundai Tucson. In the Hyundais, the ITM 3e acts like a full-time AWD with 95:5 normal torque split. In extreme conditions, the system can be locked in a 50:50 split via the 4WD LOCK button.


Part-time

These are vehicles that have no center differential. Since there is no center differential to allow for speed differences between the front and rear wheels when turning, a small amount of tire slippage must occur during turns. When used on slick surfaces, this is not a problem, but when turning on dry pavement, the tires grip, then are forced to slip, then grip again, and so on, until the turn is completed. This causes the vehicle to exhibit a 'hopping' or 'binding' sensation. Using an engaged part-time 4WD system on a hard surface is not recommended, as damage to the drive-line eventually occurs. Part-time transfer cases are the industry standard transfer case for the 4x4 truck market. Any other transfer case can be considered more robust, however more moving parts and complexity can, sometimes, make other transfer cases less durable.


See also

* 4WS * Dune bashing * Four-wheel drive in Formula One * Limited slip differential * Off-road vehicle * Rock crawling * Sport utility vehicle * Transfer case * Driveline windup


Footnotes


References

{{DEFAULTSORT:Four-Wheel Drive Off-road vehicles Car layouts Drivetrain Four-wheel drive layout, * All-wheel-drive vehicles English inventions British inventions af:Motordryfuitleg